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LIBRARY 


OF  THE 


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AGRICULTURAL 

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ORANGE  CULTURE. 


Published  by 

GERMAN  KALI  WORKS, 

New  York,  N.  Y,       Atlanta,  Ga,       Chicago,  III.       Havana,  Cuba. 


Orange  Culture  will  be  sent  free  to  Growers  or  Persons 
interested  in  Orange  Growing. 

5ome  other  important  books  on  agricultural  subjects : 

Principles  of  Profitable  Fartning, 
Potash  in  Agriculture, 
Farmers'  Guide, 

Farmers'  Note  Book, 
Cotton  Culture, 
Tobacco  Culture, 
Strawberry  Culture, 
Tropical  Planting, 
Stassfurt  Industry, 
F'ertilizing   Tobacco, 
Sugar  Cane  Culture, 
The  Cow  Pea, 
Plant  Food, 

Truck  Farming, 

Why  the  Fish  Failed. 
Value  of  Swamp  Lands. 

If  you  wish  any  of  these  books,  you  can  obtain  the  same 
free  of  charge  by  writing  to  the  German  Kali  Works,  93  Nassau 
Street,  New  York,  or  to  Atlanta,  Ga.,  1224  Candler  Building,  or 
Chicago,  111.,  562  Monadnock  Block,  or  Havana,  Cuba,  West  Indies. 


INTRODUCTION. 

THE  orange  is  as  staple  as  the  apple.  It  is  the  standard 
dessert  fruit  of  America.  The  demand  for  it  is  constant 
and  always  increasing.  To  meet  this  demand  the  business 
of  orange  growing  has  reached  enormous  proportions,  and 
has  become  the  leading  industry  of  large  sections.  Califor- 
nia and  Florida  are,  and  doubtless  will  remain,  the  two 
most  important  centers  of  orange  production.  Other  States 
and  territories,  however,  are  becoming  recognized  factors  in 
the  production  of  this  fruit.  Alabama,  Louisiana,  Texas 
and  Arizona  possess  commercial  groves  which  are  being 
increased. 

The  present  crop  of  California  may  be  safely  placed  at 
13,000,000  boxes.  The  Florida  crop  for  the  season  of  1903 
was  approximately  2,000,000  boxes.  This  is  hardly  one  half 
of  the  estimated  crop  for  the  year  1894,  when  the  Florida 
groves  were  so  nearly  ruined  by  the  "great  freeze."  Groves 
are  rapidly  increasing  in  the  State,  so  that  the  crop  has 
almost  reached  its  pristine  importance.  The  annual  crop 
of  the  country  now  represents  about  18,000,000  of  dollars 
to  the  growers. 

Entirely  aside  from  the  commercial  importance  of  the 
industry  and  the  profits  offered  by  the  business,  orange 
growing  possesses  fascinations  making  the  occupation  well 
nigh   irresistible  to  those  once  subjected  to  its  magic  in- 


fluence.  Succeeding  only  in  regions  with  climatic  conditions 
nearly  ideal  for  health  and  pleasure,  with  a  harvest  time 
when  most  other  fruits  and  plants  are  in  their  unattractive 
period  of  rest,  with  the  glistening  dark  green  foliage  con- 
trasted with  golden  fruit,  with  the  mild  warmth  of  winter 
sunshine,  with  bloom  of  flowers  and  song  of  birds  to  add  to 
the  enchantment,  with  long  periods  of  comparative  leisure 
between  the  seasons  of  chief  activity,  with  a  staple  product 
and  ever  growing  demand,  the  orange  grower  is  confronted 
by  as  few  vicissitudes  and  as  many  pleasures  as  fall  to  the 
lot  of  the  producers  of  any  natural  product. 

Although  the  business  demands  a  high  degree  of  skill, 
intelligence  and  professional  ability  of  those  engaged  in  it, 
any  one  who  is  able  to  give  the  study  and  care  to  a  general 
business  necessary  to  success,  can  successfully  grow 
oranges.  There  is  a  constant  accession  of  new  growers' 
seeking  the  rewards  and  health  offered  by  the  orange 
grove. 

It  is  the  object  of  this  little  work  to  place  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  experienced  and  inexperienced  alike,  the  best 
and  latest  developments  of  successful  practice.  Its  endeavor 
is  to  make  available  in  simple  form,  the  established  facts 
and  principles,  on  whose  application  the  success  of  the 
business  must  depend. 


ADAPTATIONS. 


Climate.  The  cliaiatic  adaptations  of  the  orange  tree 
are  more  important,  as  they  are  more  definitely  defined  than 
are  its  relations  to  soil  or  other  conditions.  In  both  Cali- 
fornia and  Florida,  it  is  found  growing  on  soils  widely 
different  in  compostion  and  properties. 

Being  a  semi-tropical  product  its  climatic  restrictions 
are  chiefly  those  of  temperature.  Its  degree  of  hardiness 
varies  materially  with  varieties.  Condition  of  the  tree  at 
the  time  it  is  subjected  to  cold  exerts  great  influence  on  its 
resistant  power.  The  minimum  normal  temperature  of  any 
locality,  is  the  first  and  most  important  point  in  determining 
its  adaptation  to  orange  culture.  The  tree  when  dormant, 
may  be  safely  subjected  to  a  temperature  of  20  degrees. 
Under  favorable  conditions,  particularly  cloudy  weather 
following  the  cold,  a  temperature  of  14  degrees  above  zero, 
for  a  few  hours,  results  in  no  serious  harm  to  trees.  Either 
of  these  temperatures  would  inevitably  be  followed  by  de- 
foliation. Neither  elevation  nor  latitude  controls  these 
conditions,  since  temperature  is  often  influenced  by  purely 
local  conditions,  especially  those  modifying  or  directing  air 
currents. 

Sufficiency  of  water  supply  is  the  other  important  cli- 
matic consideration  in  locating  orange  groves.  Being  an 
evergreen,  its  demand  for  water  is  continuous,  since  exha- 


6  WATER    SUPPLY. 

lation  from  the  leaves  goes  on  even  while  the  tree  is  dor- 
mant, though  not  to  the  same  extent  as  during  the  growing 
season.  Nature  makes  the  important  suggestion  of  placing 
her  wild  groves  only  on  moist  hammock  soils.  Though  the 
orange  was  first  found  growing  on  low,  moist  soil,  there  is 
no  tree  that  will  grow  and  do  well  on  a  greater  variety  of 
soil.  There  are  orange  groves  planted  on  land  so  low  that 
it  is  necessary  to  place  the  trees  on  a  ridge  to  keep  the 
roots  from  being  in  standing  water  and  give  ample  drain- 
age ;  there  are  other  groves  located  on  high  pine  land 
where  water  in  the  wells  stands  at  twenty  feet  from  the  sur- 
face and  still  others  in  sections  where  rains  are  practically 
unknown.  The  tap  root  of  the  orange  tree  enables  it  to 
seek  and  find  water  at  a  considerable  depth,  but  where 
there  is  not  an  adequate  rainfall,  irrigation  must  be  made 
to  supply  the  natural  deficiency. 

In  California  artificial  watering  is  depended  on  exclu- 
sively. In  Florida,  where  the  rain-fall  is  seldom  less  than  50 
inches,  spray  irrigation  is  sometimes  provided  as  insurance 
against  damage  from  drought,  oftentimes  serious  just  after 
the  young  fruit  sets. 

Soil.  Though  in  most  orange  growing  sections,  the 
term  "  Orange  Soil  "  is  in  common  use,  it  will  be  found 
that  in  even  limited  localities  the  name  is  not  applied  to 
any  particular  soil,  possessing  distinct  properties.  Orange 
soils  may  be  accepted  as  including  any  good  arable  soil  free 
from  standing  water,  and  possessing  responsiveness  to  cul- 
tivation and  fertilizing.     In   Florida  such  soils  include  the 


SOILS.  7 

great  variation  between  the  sandy  pine  ridges,  the  retentive 
"  hammocks  "  and  the  nearly  solid  porous-limestones  of  the 
East  Coast.  In  California  such  extremes  as  the  gray  gravel 
of  the  foot  hills  and  the  alluvium  of  the  river  bottoms  seem 
equally  adapted  to  the  orange,  when  the  trees  are  provided 
with  the  other  requisites  to  normal  development. 

The  character  of  the  root  system  of  the  orange  gives  an 
important  suggestion  as  to  its  soil  adaptations.  This  tap- 
root is  of  a  very  distinct  character.  It  will  not  survive 
standing  water,  nor  exist  in  either  natural  or  artificial 
hard-pan.  Soils  possessing  either  of  these  conditions,  should 
be  excluded  from  consideration  as  sites  for  groves. 


PROPAGATION* 

Seedlings.  The  orange  is  not  indigenous  to  the  Amer- 
ican continent.  Wild  trees  of  two  distinct  species,  the 
Citrus  aurentum  and  the  C.  vulgaris,  respectively,  the 
sweet  and  sour  orange,  have  grown  wild  in  Florida  ever 
since  the  first  English  speaking  settlers  became  familiar 
with  the  country.  They  were,  however,  both  introduced  by 
early  Spanish  explorers.  Finding  all  their  requirements 
supplied  by  nature,  they  throve  for  several  centuries  as  wild 
occupants  of  the  land. 

The  sour  orange  is  so  nearly  worthless,  as  to  remain 
commercially  unimportant.  The  sweet  seedling  constituted 
most  of  the  early  groves  which  gave  Florida  fame  as  an 
orange  producer.     Most  of  the   groves   of   to-day  are   the 


O  SEEDLINGS. 

result  of  perpetuating  a  distinct  type  or  quality  of  seedling, 
by  budding  it  on  a  root  or  stock  of  different  origin  and 
unlike  properties. 

The  seedling  orange,  like  the  peach  or  other  fruit,  does 
not  perpetuate  its  own  qualities  in  the  next  generation. 
The  fruit  of  a  tree  need  not  resemble  the  fruit  producing 
the  seed  from  which  the  tree  grows.  The  planting  of  seed, 
therefore,  merely  assures  a  tree,  but  offers  no  basis  for  fore- 
telling the  character  of  its  fruit.  A  few  seedling  trees 
produce  fruit  as  good,  or  better,  than  that  from  which  the 
seed  came.  Desirable  fruits  originating  in  this  way  are 
perpetuated  by  budding  or  grafting.  That  is,  by  trans- 
ferring growing  buds  of  the  tree  desired,  to  the  growing 
wood  of  the  tree  whose  product  is  to  be  thus  changed. 

Stocks.  These  are  the  trees,  usually  the  entire  roots  of 
young  trees,  to  which  the  growing  buds  of  the  kind  desired 
are  transferred.  The  result  is  a  tree  producing  fruit  with 
the  properties  of  the  tree  from  which  the  bud  was  taken. 
Although  the  fruit  follows  the  character  of  the  bud,  the 
tree  itself  is  very  materially  influenced  by  the  nature  of  the 
stock  on  which  it  grows.  This  influence  is  particularly  no- 
ticed in  the  matter  of  hardiness,  and  resistance  to  cold. 
The  C.  trifoliata  stock  greatly  increases  the  cold-resisting 
power  of  the  tree  budded  on  it.  The  C.  vulgaris  used  as 
stock  for  budded  trees  renders  them  comparatively  immune 
to  the  mal  de  goma^  gum  disease,  so  serious  in  some  orange 
sections. 

It  is  particularly  worthy  of  note  that  the  budded  tree 


STOCKS-GRAFTING.  9 

develops  and  retains  the  root  system  of  the  stock  used. 
Stocks,  or  different  species  of  orange  trees,  vary  greatly  in 
the  nature  of  their  root  system. 

The  sour  orange  is  particularly  deep  rooted.  The 
sweet  orange  is  surface  rooted  and  its  feeding  roots 
seem  to  develop  at  the  expense  of  the  tap-root.  The 
pomelo  furnishes  a  stock  with  some  of  the  advantages  of 
the  sweet  orange,  but  with  a  root  system  closely  resembling 
that  of  the  sour  stock.  The  natural  inference  is,  that  for 
dry  localities,  or  where  the  natural  water  supply  is  deep, 
the  sour  stock  possesses  advantages  offered  by  neither 
of  the  others.  The  Florida  rough  lemon,  with  its  early 
maturity  and  rank  growth,  furnishes  a  stock  particularly 
adapted  to  frostless  localities. 

Budding.  This  is  a  form  of  grafting  in  which  a  single 
bud  is  inserted  in  the  cleft  bark  of  the  tree  used  as  a  stock, 
instead  of  a  cion  being  inserted  in  the  sap-wood  of  the  tree, 
as  with  the  regular  graft.  The  character  of  the  orange 
wood  makes  budding  the  nearly  invariable  practice.  The 
fruit  of  the  tree  thus  produced  is  true  to  the  type  from 
which  the  bud  came.  The  other  characteristics  of  the  tree 
follow  the  nature  of  the  stock  used.  Budding  is  best  per- 
formed when  the  sap  is  in  full  flow.  The  buds  should  be 
entirely  dormant. 

Hybridizing.  Several  of  the  standard  varieties  of 
oranges  doubtless  originated  by  the  natural  cross-fertiliza- 
tion of  quite  distinct  types,  which  have  been  preserved  for 
commercial    purposes    by    budding.     The  importance  and 


lO  HYBRIDIZING. 

possibilities  of  producing  new  orange  types  by  the  artificial 
fertilizing  of  the  flowers  of  different  species,  resulting  in 
true  artificial  hybrid  trees,  possessing  some  of  the  desirable 
traits  of  both  parents,  has  recently  attracted  great  attention. 
Professors  Webber  and  Swingle  of  the  United  States  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture  have  succeeded  in  crossing  the  sweet 
orange  C.  trifoliata,  with  the  inedible  deciduous  orange  of 
Japan,  which  is  hardy  as  far  north  as  Pennsylvania.  The 
result  has  already  been  the  production  of  several  edible 
fruits  with  hardiness  greatly  exceeding  that  of  any  edible 
orange.  One  of  these,  the  Tangelo,  bids  fair  to  achieve 
prominence  as  a  substitute  for  lemons  and  limes,  productive 
far  north  of  any  region  of  orange  culture. 

The  object  in  view  in  this  line  of  effort,  has  been  the 
development  of  an  orange  of  commercial  value,  with  the  pro- 
nounced hardiness  of  the  deciduous  parent.  Results  already 
achieved  indicate  that  this  object  is  quite  within  the  range  of 
possibility,  and  that  hybridizing  must  hereafter  be  recog- 
nized as  an  accepted  method  of  orange  propagation. 


SATSUMA    ORANGES    FROM    FLORIDA. 
RESULTS    FROM    GOOD    CULTURE   AND    LIBERAL   FERTILIZATION. 


VARIETIES, 

Types.  To  the  novice  in  orange  culture,  or  to  persons 
whose  interest  in  the  fruit  is  confined  to  the  specimens 
found  in  market,  and  whose  l^nowledge  of  distinctions 
would  be  expressed  in  the  terms  good,  better,  best,  it  is 
surprising  to  learn  that  there  are  about  as  many  varieties  of 
the  orange  as  there  are  of  the  apple.  It  is  nevertheless 
true,  that  the  number  of  described  varieties  reaches  scores, 
and  that  nearly  every  well  equipped  nurseryman  in  orange 
growing  sections,  regularly  propagates  two  dozen  or  more 
different  varieties. 

These  varieties  differ  in  many  of  the  most  essential  char- 
acteristics. Size,  flavor,  sweetness,  beauty,  number  of  seeds, 
hardiness,  productiveness,  period  of  bearing  and  season  of 
fruiting  and  adaptation  to  localities  are  the  chief  distinguish- 
ing features. 

It  is  impossible  here  to  even  name  the  different  accepted 
varieties.  There  are  several  recognized  types,  from  which 
one  or  more  representative  varieties  may  be  selected  as  char- 
acteristic of  the  numerous  oranges  belonging  to  the  type, 
as  follows: 

Seedlings:     Florida,  Sweet  Seedling,  Tahiti,  Homosassa. 

Modified  Seedlings:     Joppa,  Wolfskill's  Best. 

Navels:     Washington,  Rivers'. 

St.  Michaels:     Paper  Rind,  Hart's  Tardif,  Valentia  Late. 

Blood  Orange:     St.  Michael's  Blood,  Maltese,  Ruby. 

Mandarin:     Satsuma,  Dancy,  King. 


VARIETIES. 


13 


Among  the  more  valuable  of  the  characteristics  of  the 
different  varieties,  is  the  difference  in  season  for  ripening. 
By  means  of  this  distinction,  it  is  possible  to  select  varie- 
ties which  will  extend  the  orange  season  from  September 
to  June.  Any  good  nursery  catalogue  gives  the  date  of  the 
ripening  of  standard  varieties. 


KUMQUAIS    FROM    FLORIDA. 


PREPARATION  FOR  PLANTING, 

Localities  differ  so  greatly  in  their  relations  to  tree 
development  that  the  treatment  of  the  site  selected  for 
the  grove,  previous  to  setting  the  trees,  must  be  determined 
by  local  conditions.  There  are,  however,  certain  general 
principles  which  apply  to  all  localities. 

Thorough  plowing  and  pulverizing  of  the  land  to  be 
devoted  to  the  grove  should  be  insisted  on.  Even  newly 
cleared  hammock  and  the  South  Florida  rock  land  should 
not  be  exempt  from  this  injunction.  The  habitat  of  the 
tree  is  never  restricted  by  a  small  circle  immediately  around 
the  trunk.  It  is  eventually  to  occupy,  and  feed  from  the 
entire  area.  The  entire  soil  must  therefore  eventually  be 
worked,  if  the  best  results  are  to  be  secured.  This  can 
never  be  so  effectually  and  economically  accomplished  as 
before  the  trees  are  in  place.  The  character  of  the  soil 
must  determine  the  depth  of  the  breaking,  but  one  foot  is 
seldom  too  deep. 

This  first  working  should  be  accomplished  during  the 
Fall  or  Winter  preceding  the  planting.  Vegetation  will 
thus  have  a  chance  to  decompose  and  leave  a  mellow  bed 
for  the  roots  of  the  young  trees.  Where  irrigation  is  to  be 
practised,  the  land  should  be  carefully  graded,  so  that  all 
parts  may  be  reached  by  the  water,  and  the  accumulation 
of  pools  be  prevented. 

Should  the  soil  be  somewhat  subject  to  excessive  moist- 
ure, as  is  the  case  with  some  hammock  and  **glade"  lands 


PLANTING.  15 

in  Florida,  the  land  should  be  thrown  into  beds  as  wide  as 
the  distance  between  the  intended  rows  of  trees,  which 
should  then  be  planted  in  the  centre  of  the  beds.  The 
water-furrows  will  then  be  half  way  between  the  rows, 
which  should  run  in  the  direction  of  the  natural  slope  or 
drainage  of  the  land. 

The  land  should  be  susceptible  to  the  thorough  cultiva- 
tion of  the  hoed  crop.  All  obstacles  to  such  treatment 
should  be  removed.  There  is  no  more  excuse  for  stumps 
and  rocks  in  a  grove  than  in  a  garden.  Not  that  clean  cul- 
ture must  always  be  followed,  but  that  perfect  control  of 
conditions,  and  full  protection  of  trees,  are  not  possible 
when  obstacles  to  perfect  cultivation  exist. 


TRANSPLANTING* 

Time.  The  orange  being  an  evergreen,  may  be  trans- 
planted through  a  very  much  longer  period  than  is  the  case 
with  deciduous  trees.  Indeed  it  may  be  set  out  at  any  time 
without  serious  risk,  but  there  are  naturally  certain  seasons 
when  transplanting  may  be  performed  with  best  results. 

Citrus  trees  have  several  periods  of  comparative  dor- 
mancy. These  vary  in  different  sections.  As  a  rule  the 
time  immediately  preceding  full  activity,  the  natural  bloom- 
ing season,  is  best  for  this  purpose.  Late  winter  and  very 
early  spring  is  the  favorite  planting  time  in  Florida.  Early 
summer  is  the  preferred  time  in  California. 

Age.  This  will  be  modified  by  variety  and  location. 
The  stock  used  also  has  an  important  bearing  on  the  ques- 
tion of  age  for  transplanting. 

Seedlings  grow  more  slowly  than  budded  trees,  and 
should  have  the  advantage  of  a  year  at  the  time  of  setting 
out.  The  trifoliata  stocks  are  usually  transplanted  as  one 
year  old  buds.  Other  varieties  should  remain  at  least 
two  years  in  the  nursery  row. 

Methods.  The  orange  grower  will,  as  a  rule,  find  it 
best  to  depend  on  the  professional  nurseryman  for  his 
supply  of  young  trees. 

Most  trees  brought  considerable  distances  will  be  re- 
ceived with  bare  roots,  the  tap-root  being  cut  about  one 
foot  long.     At  least  one  half  of  the  foliage  should  be  re- 


SELECTION    OF    SITE.  17 

moved.  The  clipping  off  of  a  part  of  each  leaf  is  preferable 
to  removing  one  half  of  the  entire  number  of  leaves. 

Great  care  should  be  taken  to  prevent  the  roots  of  the 
trees  from  being  exposed  to  the  sun  for  any  length  of  time 
during  the  transplanting  process. 

Holes  should  be  dug  large  enough  to  receive  the  roots 
without  cramping.  The  hole  should  be  partly  filled  with 
fine  earth  as  a  bed  for  the  roots.  In  this  bed  a  hole  for  re- 
ceiving the  tap-root  should  be  made  with  shovel  handlCo 
The  tree  should  be  set  a  little  higher  than  it  grew  in  the 
nursery,  to  allow  of  settling.  The  soil  should  be  carefully 
settled  around  the  roots  by  hand.  When  the  hole  is  nearly 
filled,  the  ground  should  be  thoroughly  soaked  with  water, 
that  the  roots  may  immediately  find  moisture,  the  soil  be 
closely  pressed  to  the  roots,  and  all  air  holes  filled.  The 
hole  should  then  be  filled  in,  a  little  higher  than  the  sur- 
rounding level.  Sprinkling  the  foliage  after  the  tree  is  set, 
is  a  great  advantage,  as  evaporation  from  the  leaves  is  thus 
checked  and  wilting  and  shock  are  proportionately  reduced. 
A  quicker  start  is  thus  secured. 

Laying  out  the  grove,  as  well  as  distance  of  trees  apart, 
must  depend  largely  on  varieties.  Location  and  character 
of  soil  will  also  have  important  bearing  on  this  point. 

The  most  frequent  system  of  planting  is  in  squares. 
The  quincunx  system  Avith  a  tree  in  the  center  of  each 
square  has  its  adaptations.  This  is  usually  followed  when 
the  permanent  grove  consists  of  large  and  slow  growing 
gorts,  like  the  sweet  seedling,  then  the  center  of  the  square 


l8  SYSTEMS    OF    PLANTING. 

may  profitably  be  occupied  by  a  quick  growing  smaller 
tree,  like  those  of  the  Mandarin  type,  which  may  be  re- 
moved when  the  large  trees  reach  full  size.  The  hexagonal 
and  other  systems  allowing  of  more  trees  per  acre,  are  not 
generally  used. 

The  distances  at  which  trees  should  be  placed,  should 
be  greater  on  hammock  and  very  productive  soils,  than  on 
sandy  and  less  fertile  ones.  The  size  of  trees  varies  so 
much  with  variety,  that  this  must  remain  the  controlling 
factor  in  deciding  the  matter  of  distances. 

For  common  stocks  25  to  30  feet  each  way  are  the  stand- 
ard distances.  Trifoliata  and  pomelo  stocks  should  be  set 
18  to  20  feet  apart.  At  20  feet  each  way  an  acre  accommo- 
dates 108  trees.  The  number  required  for  the  square  system 
is  easily  calculated  for  any  distance.  The  quincunx  system 
requires  15  per  cent  more  trees  than  the  square,  for  the 
same  distances. 


CULTIVATION. 

Time.  No  hard  and  fast  rule  can  be  laid  down  for  the 
cultivation  of  the  grove,  except  that  experience  in  all  coun- 
tries leads  to  the  conclusion  that  orange  trees  should  be 
treated  as  a  cultivated  crop,  and  be  given  careful  thorough 
tillage  during  some  part  of  each  year. 


SHOWING    CLEAN    CULTURE    IN    GROVE WELL    FERTILIZED. 

Cultivation  unquestionably  stimulates  root  activity. 
It  has,  therefore  become  an  accepted  belief,  that  during  the 
periods  of  dormancy  of  the  tree,  occurring  in  different 
sections  at  somewhat  different  seasons,  cultivation  should 
cease,  that  the  natural  recuperative  rest  of  the  tree  may  not 
be  interfered  with. 

There  is  another  reason  why  this  period,  existing  chiefly 
in  the  winter,  should  not  be  disturbed,  in   sections  subject 


20  CULTIVATION. 

to  damage  from  cold.  Cultivation  starts  root  action.  Root 
action  brings  the  sap  into  flow.  The  more  near  perfectly 
dormant  the  tree  is,  when  subjected  to  cold,  the  less  the 
danger  of  injury.  During  the  period  of  liability  to  serious 
cold,  therefore,  all  working  of  the  soil,  with  its  stimulating 
effect  on  the  roots,  should  be  wholly  abandoned.  It  may  be 
accepted  as  a  safe  rule  that  cultivation  should  be  confined 
to  the  interval,  between  February  and  November.  During 
this  period,  however,  practice  in  different  sections  varies 
greatly.  In  California  the  accepted  rule  is  —  ''the  soil 
must  be  kept  mellow  and  free  from  weeds  at  all  times,"  It  is 
another  accepted  practice  to  cultivate  after  each  irrigation. 

In  Florida  a  quite  radical  difference  in  practice  has  be- 
come general.  During  the  heat  of  summer  cultivation 
ceases.  For  three  months  not  only  are  the  plow  and  cul- 
tivator kept  from  the  grove,  but  the  tendency  of  nature  to 
cover  the  unprotected  soil  from  the  burning  heat  of  the  sun, 
by  means  of  protecting  vegetation,  is  encouraged. 

The  Florida  orange  grower  is,  year  by  year,  going 
farther  in  this  direction  and  now  even  sows  protective  fo- 
rage crops,  chiefly  legumes,  particularly  desmodium  and 
velvet  beans,  as  a  nitrogen-conserving  method  for  prevent 
ing  the  burning  up  of  the  organic  matter  of  his  soils  by  the 
heat  of  mid-summer.  These  crops  are  either  harvested  or 
plowed  under  in  the  Autumn,  thus  increasing  the  fertility 
and  tree-sustaining  capacity  of  the  soil. 

Clean  Culture  vs.  Cover  Crops.  This  comparison  has 
been   thoroughly    made    in    both    Florida    and    California, 


CULTIVATION.  -  21 

The  victory,  and  general  practice  is  in  favor  of  the  cover 
crop,  on  all  soils  free  from  excess  of  organic  nitrogenous 
matter  and  where  die-back  has  not  manifested  itself. 

Methods.  The  character  of  the  soil  will  necessarily 
chiefly  influence  the  nature  of  the  cultivation  followed,  and 
the  means  by  which  it  is  effected.  On  the  comparatively 
light  soils  of  Florida  cultivation  from  4  to  6  inches  deep  is 
the  common  practice.  The  plow  is  used  for  this  purpose 
usually  at  least  once  per  year.  The  more  frequent  culti- 
vations are  accomplished  by  use  of  the  orchard  cultivator, 
a  cut-away,  or  the  spading  harrow.  In  dry  seasons  the  more 
frequent  and  shallow  cultivation  is  practiced. 

In  California  the  subsoil  plow  was  formerly  believed 
indispensable,  to  break  up  the  ''irrigation  hard-pan"  re- 
sulting from  constant  plowing  and  watering  to  a  fixed  depth. 
The  effects  of  the  root  destruction  inevitable  to  the  use  of 
the  sub-soiler,  became  so  apparent  that  the  practice  is  no 
longer  commended.  Plowing  to  the  depth  of  one  foot  in 
three  furrows  between  the  rows,  and  plenty  of  water  slowly 
and  continuously  used,  effectually  overcome  the  hard-pan, 
or  prevent  its  occurrence.  Although  not  now  needed  as 
much  as  formerly  the  regular  and  deep  use  of  the  chisel- 
toothed  cultivator,  together  with  plenty  of  water  used 
slowly  are  equally  effective.     (*) 


(*)  California  Ex.  Station  Bulletin  138, 


FERTILIZING. 

The  orange  is  more  dependent  on  quality  for  liberal  re- 
turns to  the  grower  than  is  any  other  fruit.  This  is  neces- 
sarily so  from  the  fact  that  it  is  almost  exclusively  a  dessert 
fruit  consumed  in  its  natural  condition.  It  is  seldom  con- 
verted into  secondary  products,  is  rarely  cooked  and  there- 
fore its  natural  properties  are  neither  supplemented, 
changed  nor  corrected  by  art  or  artifice.  The  orange  is 
also  extremely  susceptible  to  modification  through  the 
influence  of  the  food  upon  which  it  feeds.  These  facts 
make  the  matter  of  fertilizing  the  tree  one  of  the  most  im- 
portant factors  involved  in  orange  culture. 

This  is  true  wherever  the  business  has  reached  a  high 
state  of  development.  Wherever  an  assemblage  of  orange 
growers  begins  discussing  any  phase  of  the  business  in 
which  they  are  engaged,  the  problems  of  satisfactory  fertil- 
izing are  sure  to  come  to  the  front.  The  groves  may  slope 
to  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean,  bask  in  the  sunshine  of 
the  Pacific  or  be  kissed  by  the  breezes  of  the  Gulf  of  Mexico, 
but  the  golden  fruit  they  bear  has  resulted  from  the  practice 
of  the  advanced  science  of  plant  fertilizing. 

In  Florida  the  larger  proportion  of  the  groves  are 
located  on  pine  land  so  deficient  in  general  fertility,  that 
whatever  is  taken  from  the  soil  in  the  form  of  crop,  must 
have  first  been  artificially  given  to  it  in  the  form  of  plant 


ORANGE  KXPER[.\rEN  r  OF  MR.   JOAQUIN  BERNAT, 
CATAKROJA,    SPAIN. 


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TREE    FERTILIZED    WITH    POTASH,   PHOSPHORIC   ACID    AND    NITROGEN. 
YIELD    PER    ACRE,    I706.7    LBS 


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TREE    FERTILIZED    WITH    PHOSPHORIC    ACID    AND    NITROGEN. 
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24 


NEED  FOR  PLANT  FOOD. 


food.  In  California  many  groves  are  planted  on  land  shown 
by  analysis  to  be  strong  in  all  the  essentials  of  plant  growth. 
Yet  on  these  lands,  with  regular  irrigation,  successful 
growers  "do  not  consider  it  prudent  to  make  too  great  de- 


ORANGE    GROVE    NEAR    RIVERSIDE,    CAL.,    SHOWING    LACK 
OF    FERTILIZATION. 


ORANGE    GROVE    NEAR    RIVERSIDE,    CAL.,    LIBERALLY 
FERTILIZED    WITH    COMPLETE    FERTILIZER. 

mands  upon  the  soil  without  giving  back  some  equivalent 
in  the  form  of  plant  food. "   (*) 

This  unity  of  opinion  and  similarity  of  practice,  in  sec- 
tions so  far  apart  and  different  in  natural  conditions,  is  the 
strongest  proof  of  the  necessity  and  importance  of  orange 
grove  fertilizing. 

(*)  •' Citrus  Culture  in  Calif ornia  "  p.  134. 


BASIS    FOR    FERTILIZING.  25 

The  basis  of  practice.  Whatever  may  be  the  local  modi- 
fications, the  accepted  basis,  the  accepted  starting  point  for 
the  rational  fertilizing  of  any  crop,  is  the  chemical  compo- 
sition of  that  crop. 

The  object  of  the  intelligent  cultivator  is  to  apply  to  the 
soil  the  plant  food  required  by  the  crop  to  be  produced 
thereby,  and  which  experience  shows  that  the  crop  is  unable 
to  secure  by  natural  means.  A  knowledge  of  the  character 
and  habits  of  growth  of  the  crop  in  question,  and  of  the 
composition  and  properties  of  the  soil,  are  important  modi- 
fying and  accessory  considerations. 

Each  of  these  factors  must  be  separately  considered  in 
reference  to  orange  production. 

Composition  of  Oranges.  The  fruit  of  California  and 
Florida  differs  each  from  the  other  so  greatly  in  character 
and  composition,  that  analyses  of  both  are  here  presented. 


FERTILIZING  CONSTITUENTS  IN  JOOO  LBS* 
OF  ORANGES.  (*) 

Phophoric  Acid.  Nitrogen.  Potash. 

California 0.53  lbs.  1.83  lbs.       2. 11  lbs. 

Florida 0.77     *'  1.24    "         4.79    '* 

The  comparison  of  these  figures  shows  a  very  noteworthy 
difference  in  the  composition  of  the  fruit  of  che  two  Staces. 
It  is  probable  that  this  difference  in  the  fertilizing  consti- 


("■)  Cal.  &  Fla.  Sta.  Bulletins,  respectively  Nos.  88  and  17. 


26  RELATION    OF    FLAVOR    TO    SOIL. 

tuents  of  the  fruit  of  the  two  sections  is  in  keeping  with 
the  well  known  differences  in  the  character  of  the  fruit 
itself. 

The  most  noticeable  difference  is  in  the  potash  content. 
The  Florida  fruit  contains  more  than  double  the  amount 
found  in  that  of  California.  The  well  recognized  influence 
of  potash  on  sweetness  and  flavor  would,  with  these  analyses 
in  hand,  seem  to  explain  the  pre-eminence  of  the  Florida 
fruit  in  sweetness  and  flavor. 

Composition  of  Orange  soi!.  The  composition  of  any 
soil,  as  determined  by  analysis,  has  little  bearing  on 
methods  of  practical  fertilizing.  This  must  be  true,  from 
the  impossibility  of  determining  the  amount  of  any  soil 
constituent  which  may  really  become  available,  or  possibly 
used  by  any  crop  during  its  period  of  growth.  The  chem- 
ical composition  of  the  soil  is  now  generally  believed  to 
be  of  less  importance  to  the  plant  than  the  physical  con- 
dition of  the  soil  and  its  constituents.  The  composition  of 
the  soil,  however,  does  offer  some  indication  of  its  crop 
adaptations  and  general  prcductivness. 

The  futility  of  soil  analysis  as  a  basis  for  fertilizer  treat- 
ment is  forcibly  illustrated  by  experiments  made  in  Cali- 
fornia on  soil  shown  by  analysis  to  contain  available  potash 
"sufficient  for  many  consecutive  crops,  but  on  which  the 
application  of  potash  increased  the  yield  of  fruit,  improved 
the  growth  of  the  trees  and  raised  the  sugar  content  of  the 
juice  over  37  per  cent.  "  (*) 


(*)  Prof.  Woodbridg-e,  Report  Riverside  Hort.  Club..  i8q5. 


FOOD    REQUIREMENTS. 


27 


The  Food  Requirements  of  the  orange  differ  from 
recognized  requirements  of  other  crops,  only  in  amount 
and  proportions.  Potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen 
are  demnnded  by  tlie  tree,  in  excess  of  the  ability  of  common 


GROVE   OF    A.    M.    SEELEY. — CO  VINA,    CAL. 

SHOWING   RESULTS   OF    COMPLETE    FERTILIZER — POTASH,   PHOSPHORIC 

ACID    AND    NITROGEN. 


soils  to  supply,  and  must  therefore  be  provided  by  the 
grower.  His  concern  is  not  what  but  how  much  and  in 
what  form  to  apply. 

It  should  be  here  noted  that  lime  is  known  to  possess 
special  adaptations  to  the  orange.  Its  action  is  to  produce 
the  desirable  thinness  of  skin.     Since  all  commercial  forms 


28  PHOSPHORIC    ACID    AND    NITROGEN. 

of  phosphate  supply  available  lime,  its  artificial  providing 
is  seldom  required. 

The  special  properties  and  adaptations  of  each  of  the 
three  plant  food  essentials  must  be  separately  considered, 
so  that  the  principles  controlling  their  successful  use  may 
be  understood. 

Phosphoric  Acid.  Its  direct  effect  is  exerted  more  on 
the  tree  than  on  the  fruit.  The  seed,  however,  makes  con- 
siderable demands  for  it.  Lack  of  sufficient  supply  of  this 
material,  is  frequently  manifested  by  a  mottled  or  slightly 
variegated  appearance  of  the  newly  formed  leaf.  The 
disappearance  of  this  condition,  upon  the  liberal  application 
of  phosphatic  fertilizers,  is  probably  in  part  due  to  the  well 
known  action  of  phosphates,  which  are  always  accompanied 
by  sulphate  of  lime,  if  acidulated,  in  liberating  otherwise 
unavailable  plant  food.  The  demand  of  the  orange  for 
this  material,  is  really  considerably  less  than  for  either  of 
the  other  two  essentials.  There  can  be  no  doubt  that  most 
complete,  ready  mixed  fertilizers,  supply  much  larger 
quantities  than  are  needed,  or  can  be  ecomonically  applied. 

Nitrogen.  The  special  offices  of  nitrogen  in  orange 
production,  are  to  force  vigorous,  even  rank,  growth.  This 
is  manifested  in  wood,  leaf  and  fruit.  The  effect  on  foliage 
is  most  noticeable.  Absence  of  sufficient  nitrogen  mani- 
fests itself  in  paleness  or  yellowness  of  leaf,  scanty  foliage 
and  apparent  lack  of  vigor.  Abundance  of  nitrogen  results 
in  luxuriant  growth,  abundant,  glossy  and  dark  colored 
leaves.      Heavy  juicy  fruit  is  another  result  of  abundant 


POTASH.  29 

nitrogen  supply.  Dry,  light,  fruit,  with  superabundance  of 
**rag"  is  an  indication  of  lack  of  nitrogen.  Excess  of 
nitrogen  is  followed  by  rankness  of  growth,  succeeded  by 
death  of  the  ends  of  the  twigs,  recognized  as  the  insipient 
stage  of  ''die-back"  which  is  a  sure  indication  of  mal- 
nutrition.    The  fruit  becomes  thick  and  rough  skinned. 

Potash.  This  exerts  a  very  apparent  influence  on  the 
general  vigor  of  the  tree,  and  its  productiveness.  Its  most 
decisive  influence  is  on  the  character,  color,  sweetness  and 
flavor  of  the  fruit,  and  on  the  ripening,  or  hardening  of  the 
wood.  Lack  of  potash  is  manifest  in  the  preponderance 
of  immature  wood  and  the  consequent  susceptibility  of  the 
tree  to  injury  from  cold. 

Over  one  half  of  the  total  ash  of  the  fruit  consists  of 
potash.  Scientific  experiments  both  in  California  and 
Florida  as  well  as  the  consensus  of  opinion  among  the  most 
observant  growers,  leave  no  room  for  doubting  the  direct 
influence  of  potash  on  the  quality  of  fruit,  especially  on  its 
sweetness. 

The  influence  of  potash  on  wood  development  is,  in 
some  respects  apparently  greater  with  the  orange  than  with 
other  trees,  and  in  this  particular  has  a  special  significance 
so  far  as  the  health  of  the  tree  is  concerned. 

The  new  growth  of  orange  wood  is  normally  not 
cylindrical;  the  young  twigs  are  at  first  flattened  on  two  or 
more  sides  to  an  angular  form,  usually  approaching  a 
distinctly  three  sided  or  triangular  condition.  Toward  the 
end  of  the  first  season  this  condition  usually  disappears,  if 


30 


POTASH    AND    TWIG    GROWTH. 


normal  development  proceeds.  It  is  observed,  however, 
that  in  case  of  over  ammoniating  of  the  trees  this  angular 
condition  is  much  more  persistent,  and  the  development  of 
round  branches  is  delayed.  In  groves  deficient  in  potash, 
or  showing  excess   of  ammonia   fertilizing,    branches  two 


SHOWING    EFFECT    OF    PO'lASH    ON    TWIG    DEVELOPMEiNT. 
No  Potash— Flat  and  sharply  cornered.        Potash— Round  and  well  developed. 

years  old  showing  three,  four  or  even  five  well  defined 
flattened  sides  are  much  in  evidence.  Where  this  condition 
exists  the  liberal  use  of  mineral  fertilizers,  especially  pot- 
ash conteracts  this  condition. 

Not  only  does  this  condition  of  the  young  growth  of  a 
tree,   therefore,   give  good  indication  of  its  fertilizer    re- 


EFFECTS    OF    POTASH    ON    GROWTH.  3 1 

quirements,  but  the  fact  is  of  particular  importance  in  its 
relation  to  tree  health.  Over  ammoniation  is  recognized 
as  one  of  the  chief  causes  of  die-back.  Careful  observation 
shows  that,  even  with  twigs  of  the  same  age,  die-back  is 
most  prevalent  where  the  proportion  of  angular  twigs  is 
greatest.  The  persistent  presence  of  this  condition  of  the 
young  branches,  after  the  first  year,  is  a  sign  of  more  or  less 
abnormal  development,  due  to  unnatural  conditions.  The 
changes  are  among  the  pre-disposing  causes  of  one  of  the 
most  persistent  orange  tree  diseases,  dic-back.  Potash 
seems  to  be  a  corrective  of  these  conditions,  and  its  liberal 
use  lessens  the  probability  for  disease  and  improves  the 
condition  of  effected  trees. 

Relation  of  Habits  of  Growth.  With  the  special  relations 
of  the  different  plant  foods  of  the  orange  in  mind,  the  modi- 
fying effects  of  the  character  of  the  tree  on  the  practical 
application  of  fertilizers,  must  be  considered,  before  dis- 
cussing the  important  matter  of  the  forms  of  supply. 

There  are  three  facts  relative  to  the  habits  of  growth  of 
the  tree,  which  have  direct  bearing  on  the  matter  of  practi- 
cal fertilizing 

First  is  the  fact  of  the  great  longevity  of  the  tree  itself. 
This  age  and  slow  development  means  that  any  fertilizer 
applied  to  the  tree,  unless  interfered  with  by  other  conditions, 
is  subject  not  only  to  the  action  of  the  tree,  but  of  the  ele- 
ments, and  soil  changes  for  a  long  time.  The  result  is  that 
material  not  used  by  the  tree  during  the  first  season,  may 
become  available   the   next,   or  possibly  remain   for  years 


32  FACTORS    EFFECTING     FERTILIZATION. 

within  reach,  and  eventually  be  used.  The  special  signifi- 
cance of  this  fact,  lies  in  its  application  to  the  phosphoric 
acid.  The  reverted  acid  is  probably  fully  as  valuable  to 
the  orange,  as  the  soluble  form,  and  doubtless  in  time  be- 
comes available  and  is  used  by  the  tree.  This  accounts  for 
the  common  preference  of  growers  for  bone-meal  and 
similar  forms  of  phosphates. 

The  next  important  consideration  in  connection  with 
the  character  of  the  tree  or  its  habits  of  growth,  concerns 
its  root  system. 

Different  types  of  oranges  or  different  stocks,  possess 
root  systems  quite  different  in  their  relations  to  the  matter 
of  the  plant  food   supply  adapted   to   their  requirements. 

The  sour  stock  is  much  more  deeply  rooted  than  is  either 
of  the  others.  Nitrification  is  a  comparatively  shallow  soil 
process.  The  shallow  rooted  stocks  are  therefore  more 
likely  to  derive  full  benefit  from  the  fertilizers  whose  nitro- 
gen must  undergo  the  nitrification  process.  On  the  other 
hand,  sour  stocks  are  most  likely  to  utilize  nitrates,  which 
often  penetrate  the  soil  below  the  depth  of  shallow  roots. 

A  third  point  worthy  of  consideration  in  this  connec- 
tion, is  the  fact  that  the  orange  grower  must  fertilize  for 
two  distinct  purposes,  with  quite  unlike  requirements.  He 
must  feed  both"  tree  and  fruit.  With  bearing  trees  both 
these  requirements  must  be  supplied  at  the  same  time. 
With  trees  which  should  be  in  fruit,  but  are  for  some  reason 
unproductive,  intelligent  fertilizing  is  the  most  efficient 
corrective.    The  most  important  practical  deduction  is, that 


SOURCES  OF  PLANT  FOOD,  33 

the  young  grove,  before  it  comes  into  bearing,  needs  treat- 
ment for  trees  alone  and  should  be  fertilized  quite  differ- 
ently from  the  grove,  possibly  of  the  same  age,  which  has 
not  yet  reached  the  fruiting  stage.    • 

Forms  to  apply.  With  all  crops  in  which  the  special 
properties  dependent  on  aroma  and  flavor  control  value, 
the  form  in  which  the  plant  food  is  supplied,  is  of  very 
great  importance.  This  is  particularly  true  of  the  orange, 
the  appearance,  quality  and  flavor  of  which  so  largely 
influence  market  returns.  This  importance  is  greatly  in- 
creased by  the  well  recognized  fact  that  the  health  of  the 
tree  itself  may  be  so  effected  by  certain  common  forms  of 
fertilizer. 

The  source  of  the  phosphoric  acid  supply,  seems  to  be 
immaterial  so  far  as  results  are  concerned.  Economy  of 
cost  of  the  actual  plant  food  is  the  controlling  factor  with 
this  food.  The  less  quickly  available  forms,  bone-meal, 
soft  phosphate  and  Thomas  slag  may  be  used  for  perman- 
ent tree  making  materials.  For  regular  feeding  and  quick- 
er results  acid  phosphate  should  be  the  standby 

The  best  form  of  Potash  to  supply  the  orange  tree  is  the 
Sulphate  of  Potash  or  Sulphate  of  Potash-Magnesia.  The 
former  can  be  used  where  transportation  enters  largely  into 
the  cost  of  getting  the  Potash  to  the  grove  and  can  be  used 
on  young  trees  to  good  advantage.  The  latter  (commonly 
known  as  low  grade  Sulphate  or  Double  Manure  Salt)  is  con- 
sidered the  best  form  for  fruiting  trees  on  account  of  the 
magnesia  which  it  contains,  which  is  not  found  in  the  other 


34  SOURCES  OF  PLANT  FOOD. 

forms  of  Potash  Manures.  A  grove  in  Florida  on  which 
no  other  form  of  Potash  has  been  used  for  a  period  of 
twelve  years,  is  noted  for  producing  fruit  of  the  finest  flav- 
or, beautiful  color  and  good  keeping  qualities.  Hardwood 
ashes  can  also  be  used  to  good  advantage  occasionally,  as 
the  alkali  in  the  ashes  will  neutralize  any  acid  that  may  have 
accumulated  in  the  soil,  which  will  better  enable  the  tree 
to  take  up  the  plant  food  which  is  placed  within  its  reach. 

In  selecting  the  form  of  nitrogen  the  greatest  precaution 
is  needed.  Stable  manure  should  as  a  rule  not  be  permitted 
near  orange  trees.  Although  even  cow  and  sheep  manure 
has  been  used  in  connection  with  a  supplementary  applica- 
tion of  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  there  is  danger  of  a  rank 
growth,  thick  skinned  fruit  with  excess  of  rag  and  inferior 
flavor,  with  even  splitting  and  dropping,  if  stabe  manure 
is  used  alone.  Still  more  to  be  guarded  against  is  the 
"die-back"  almost  sure  to  follow  the  continued  use  of  a  fer- 
tilizer containing  too  much  nitrogen.  Other  organic  forms 
of  nitrogen,  such  as  cotton-seed  meal,  tankage  and  blood, 
possess  much  the  same  tendency  as  manure  and  should  be 
used  with  great  caution  except  on  the  soils  noticeably 
deficient  in  organic  matter,  and  preferably  for  tree  growth, 
before  the  fruit  period. 

Nitrate  of  soda  is  the  ideal  source  of  nitrogen.  Sulph- 
ate of  ammonia  stands  next.  Between  these  two  the  cost  of 
actual  nitrogen  at  the  time  of  purchase,  may  safely  be  the 
basis  of  selection.  Mineral  forms  of  nitrogen  should  be 
used  to  the  rigid  exclusion  of  organic  forms,  except  under 
the  restrictions  mentioned. 


INDIRECT    ACTION    OF    MANURES.  35 

Secondary  effects  of  fertiliz.iS.  Primarily  fertilizers 
are  the  raw  material  from  which  nature  is  to  produce  trees 
and  fruit.  There  are  certain  well  recognized  other  effects 
which  must  not  be  overlooked,  in  any  full  consideration  of 
orange  fertilizers. 

Certain  fertilizing  materials,  particularly  kainit  and  nit- 
rate of  soda,  possess  well  recognized  insecticidal  properties, 
probably  of  some  direct  value  in  the  orange  grove. (*)  The 
most  important  secondary  effect  of  fertilizers  is  exerted  on 
the  water  content  of  soils.  To  this  the  increased  drought- 
resistant  powers  of  soils  fertilized  with  certain  mineral 
salts  is  due. 

Nitrate  of  soda  and  kainit  both  materially  increase  cap- 
illary action  in  soils.  More  water  moves  upward  from  the 
lower  strata  and  thus  comes  within  reach  of  the  roots,  when 
the  soil  has  been  fertilized  with  either  of  these  materials, 
because  the  moving  water  has  become  a  dilute  solution 
of  these  salts.  This  fact  is  not  only  susceptible  of  scien- 
tific demonstration,  but  accords  with  practical  experience. 
Growers  frequently  explain  their  observation  on  this  point, 
by  the  supposition  that  these  materials  absorb  atmospheric 
water,  and  thus  increase  the  available  supply.  The  real  ex- 
planation lies  in  the  well  known  power  of  certain  salts  of 
potash  and  soda,  to  increase  surface  tension,  and  conse- 
quently the  capillary  movement  of  soil  water.  * 

This  action  is  so  important  that  it  may  well  exert  a  con- 


(*)  Prof.  H.  J.  Webber  in  "Citrus  Culture  in  Cala."   by   State 
Bid.  of  Hort.  1900. 


36  EFFECT    ^F    POTASH    ON    QUALITY. 

trolling  influence  in  determining  the  selection  of  the  form 
of  fertilizer,  when  no  counteracting  objection  to  the  use  of 
the  material  exists.  Kainit  is  not  a  desirable  plant  food 
for  bearing  groves ;  but  nitrate  of  soda  is  one  of  the  accept- 
ed forms  of  nitrogen.  Its  influence  on  the  water  content  of 
dry  sandy  soils,  particularly  in  Florida  during  the  often 
occurring  **May  drought"  is  sometimes  sufficient  to  save  a 
crop  of  fruit  which  might  otherwise  be  lost. 

It  is  well  here  to  mention  the  fact  that  organic  manures 
have  the  opposite  effect,  and  increase  the  dryness  of  soils 
during  scarcity  of  moisture. 

Relations  to  quality  of  fruit.  The  variations  in  qual- 
ity of  oranges  are  so  great,  and  their  value  is  so  influenced 
thereby,  that  the  recognized  relations  between  fertilizer 
used  and  fruit  produced  are  worthy  of  careful  consideration. 

Phosphoric  acid  possesses  slight  specific  influence,  after 
the  demands  of  normal  development  have  been  supplied. 
Organic  forms  of  nitrogen  are  detrimental  to  general  qual- 
ity, result  in  coarse  texture,  thick  rough  skin,  excess  of  rag 
and  lack  of  good  flavor.  Nitrate  of  soda  is  sometimes 
claimed  to  increase  the  sourness  of  the  fruit,  but  apparent 
cases  may  usually  be  traced  to  the  comparative  lack  of  pot- 
ash, resulting  in  a  disproportionate  amount  of  nitrogen. 

Of  the  three  essentials,  potash  exerts  by  far  the  greatest 
influence  on  character  of  fruit.  Thinner  skin,  larger  pro- 
portion of  pulp  and  sweeter  juice  are  the  acknowledged 
effects  of  potash.  So  marked  is  this  influence  that  the 
experienced  grower  in  Florida  where  the  science  and  art  of 


BLOOM,    WOOD    AND    FRUIT    FERTILIZING.  37 

orange  fertilizing  is  developed  to  the  highest  degree,  will 
unhestitatingly  pick  out  the  fruit  resulting  from  sufficient 
potash  supply,  irom  that  produced  in  the  same  grove  with 
lack  of  this  essential. 

Time  and  Method  of  application.  The  orange  blooms 
in  the  Spring.  The  flower  is  produced  on  wood  matured 
the  previous  season.  It  is  thus  apparent  that  the  fertilizer 
or  food  which  supports  the  bloom  and  young  fruit,  must 
have  been  consumed  by  the  tree  during  the  previous  season." 

Fertilizer  should  be  applied  at  least  twice  during  the 
year.  Bearing  trees  will  do  better  with  three  or  four  appli- 
cations. February,  June,  September  and  November  are  the 
proper  months  and  intervals.  The  first  may  be  called  the 
bloom,  the  second  the  fruit  and  the  last  two  the  wood  fer- 
tilizing. The  former  two  applications  should  therefore  be 
comparatively  strong  in  nitrogen;  the  final  fertilizing  of  the 
season  should  be  particularly  a  potash  application.  The 
phosphoric  acid  may  remain  constant.  Proportions  and 
quantities  will  be  separately  considered.  All  applications 
should  be  apportioned  to  the  individual  trees,  the  party 
applying  same  should  walk  with  the  right  hand  to  the  tree, 
throwing  the  fertilizer  toward  the  center  in  the  "same  manner 
that  seed  is  sown.  This  will  allow  sufficient  fertilizer  to 
drop  at  the  edge  of  the  trees  for  all  necessary  purposes  and 
put  the  bulk  in  the  center,  where  the  mass  of  feeding  roots 
are  located.     It  should  be  either  hoed  or  cultivated  in. 

A  common  tendency  to  apply  very  close  to  the  trunk  of 
the  tree  should  be  avoided,  except  during  the  first  two  or 


38  FERTILIZING    SUGGESTIONS. 

three  years.  The  circle  of  application  should  be  gradually 
widened  till  the  tree  is  eventually  conpelled  to  seek  its  food 
through  all  the  intervening  space  between  the  rows.  There 
is  no  danger  of  fertilizer  needed  by  the  tree,  escaping  its 
search.  The  larger  the  fertilized  circle,  the  greater  the 
area  from  which  the  tree  will  draw  its  supply  of  moisture 
and  natural  food. 

Quantity  and  proportions.     As  has  already  been  shown, 

he  amount,  character  and  proportions  of  fertilizer  which 

should  be  given  to  growing  trees  and  to  bearing  groves  are 

materially  different.     Each  must,  therefore,  be  considered 

separately  in  this  connection. 

Six  years  may  be  accepted  as  the  age  at  which  the  aver- 
age grove  may  be  expected  to  come  inio  profitable  bearing. 
Sweet  seedling  trees  may  require  four  years  longer  for 
reaching  this  stage.  Certain  varieties,  particularly  the 
Satsuma  on  trifoliata  stock,  are  very  early  bearers,  even 
producing  fruit  in  the  nursery  row.  The  age  limit,  therefore, 
is  only  comparative  and  must  be  accepted  with  these  mod- 
ifications. 

The  quantities  named  are  for  each  tree,  since  the  number 
of  trees  per  acre  is  so  variable.  Two  different  sets  of  for- 
mulas are  suggested,  one  for  sandy  and  one  for  heavy  or 
hammock  soils. 


GROWING  TREE  FERTILIZERS, 

The  ability  of  the  tree  to  use  fertilizer  during  the  season 
of  its  being  transplanted  is  comparatively  slight.  After  the 
first  year  the  basis  of  plant-food  supply  for  the  tree  should 
be  about  the  following  amounts  per  year : 

(a)  Light  Soils.  Phosphoric  acid    .6  lbs. 

Nitrogen  .     .     .    .4    " 
Potash 6    '* 

(b)  Heavy  Soils.  Phosphoric  acid  0.6  lbs. 

Nitrogen  .     .     .  0.2     '* 
Potash.     .     .     .0.6    " 

These  proporiions  of  actual  plant  food  must  necessarily 
be  supplied  to  the  grove  by  the  application  of  mixed  fertil- 
izers, or  of  the  different  fertilizing  chemicals  required  to 
furnish  the  quantities  of  the  tree  essentials  mentioned. 

The  properly  mixed  fertilizer  containing  these  quantities 
of  actual  plant  food  would  have  about  the  percentage  com- 
position of,  Phosphoric  Acid,  6  per  cent ;  Nitrogen  4  per 
cent  and  Potash  6  per  cent.  One  half  of  the  nitrogen  is  to 
be  omitted  from  the  application  to  heavy  soils. 

The  following  materials  may  be  advantageously  applied 
for  supplying  the  fertilizer  requirements  of  100  trees.  Acid 
Phosphate,  500  lbs.,  Nitrate  of  Soda,  175  lbs..  Cotton-seed 
Meal,  200  lbs.,  Sulphate  of  potash,  125  lbs.  On  heavy  soils 
the  cotton-seed  meal  should  be  omitted,  and  the  nitrate  of 
soda  be  depended  on  as  the  entire  source  of  nitrogen. 


40  GROWING    TREE    FERTILIZER. 

Dissolved  bone-black  may  be  substituted  for  the  acid 
phosphate,  sulphate  of  ammonia  for  the  nitrate  of  soda,  and 
sulphate  of  potash-magnesia  for  the  muriate  of  potash, 
when  convenience  or  economy  make  these  forms  the  pre- 
ferable source  of  supply.  The  substitution  of  either  of 
these  materials  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  their  per- 
centage composition,  so  that  the  quantity  used  shall  contain 
the  same  quantity  of  actual  plant  food  as  called  for  in  the 
above  formula.  As  all  fertilizer  materials  are  sold  on  their 
analytical  composition,  the  substitution  is  very  simple.  For 
instance  :  Suppose  that  sulphate  of  ammonia  happens  to  be 
more  economical  or  desirable,  in  some  case,  than  the  nitrate 
of  soda  mentioned,  so  that  a  substitution  of  the  former  for 
the  latter  is  desired. 

Thequantity  of  nitrate  of  soda  called  for  is  175  lbs.  This 
must  not  be  replaced  by  an  equal  number  of  pounds  of 
sulphate  of  ammonia,  which  is  richer  in  nitrogen,  but  by 
the  quantity  of  the  latter  necessary  to  give  the  same  amount 
of  nitrogen  contained  in  the  175  lbs.  of  nitrate.  The  latter 
contains  approximately  15  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  while  the 
sulphate  contains  20  per  cent.  130  lbs.  of  the  sulphate  of 
ammonia,  therefore,  contains  as  much  nitrogen,  as  175  lbs. 
of  nitrate  of  soda,  and  is  the  proper  quantity  to  be  used  in 
the  substitution.  With  this  principle  in  mind  the  grower 
may  vary  the  ingredients  of  his  fertilizer  mixture  at  will, 
from  the  desirable  materials  at  his  command,  and  still 
not  alter  the  supply  of  actual  plant  food  made  accessible 
to  the  tree. 


FERTILIZING    FOR    THE    TREE.  4I 

The  quantities  to  be  applied  to  the  trees  must  necessarily 
depend  on  age,  condition  and  previous  treatment  of  the  soil. 
The  first  year  2  to  3  lbs.  of  the  mixture  recommended  will 
meet  the  needs  of  the  tree.  One  half  of  this  quantity  should 
be  applied  at  the  time  of  transplanting  by  putting  it  in  the 
hole  at  lest  ten  days  before  the  time  the  tree  is  put  out  and 
thoroughly  mixing  it  into  the  soil,  the  more  thoroughly  it  is 
mixed  with  the  soil,  the  better  it  will  be  for  the  tree.  The 
other  half  may  be  put  on  either  in  June  or  July. 

The  annual  application  should  be  regularly  increased  as 
the  tree  grows.  The  rate  of  increase  may  be  approximately 
one  half  each  year,  till  the  tree  is  from  4  to  6  years  old, 
when  it  maybe  expected  to  be  far  enough  advanced  in  crop 
producing  to  be  placed  in  the  list  of  bearing  trees  and 
be  treated  with  the  bearing  tree  fertilizer. 

As  a  guide  to  the  proper  individual  application  to  trees, 
the  following  may  be  accepted  as  good  practice  : 

ist  year,  3  lbs.;  2nd,  4  %  lbs.;  3rd,  6  lbs.;  4th,  9  lbs.; 
5th,  12  lbs.;  6th,  15  lbs.  The  age  at  which  the  change  from 
tree  to  fruit  fertilizer  may  be  made  cannot  be  foretold. 
It  varies  greatly,  even  with  the  same  varieties.  The  Satsuma 
is  a  particularly  early  bearer,  and  often  makes  a  crop  the 
third  year.  Even  with  such  early  productivity  however,  the 
tree  will  remain  more  important  than  the  bearing  of  fruit, 
for  a  year  or  two  longrer,  since  tree-making  is  indispensable 
to  future  fruit  making. 


BEARING-TREE  FERTILIZERS. 

With  oranges,  as  with  any  plant,  the  composition  of  the 
crop  produced,  must  be  the  basis  of  rational  food  supply. 
This  material  is  actually  removed  from  the  soil,  therefore 
the  quantity  of  the  crop,  or  fruit  to  be  provided  for,  is  the 
starting  point  for  the  rational  fertilizing  of  the  grove.    The 
average  amounts  of  the  three  essential  plant  foods,  shown 
by  analysis  to  be  present  in  the  fruit,  becomes  the  practical 
basis  for  the  economical  and  satisfactory  fertilizing  of  bear- 
ing orange  trees.  , 
Fertilizing  Ingredients  in  Oranges. 
20,000  lbs.,  300  boxes. 
Phosphoric  acid     0.06  per  cent     12  lbs. 
Nitrogen  .     .     .     0.14         "           28    *' 
Potash  ....     o  25          "           50    " 
Adopting  20,000  lbs.  of  fruit,  equivalent  to  300  boxes,  as 
a  convenient  crop  basis,  the  above  amounts  of  each  of  the 
three  actual  plant  food  requirements  would  supply  the  de- 
mands of  the  crop  for  material  for  its  growth.     It  must  be 
remembered,  however,  that  this  material  only  represents  the 
fruit,  and  provides  no  supply  for    the   needs  of  the  tree  on 
which  the  fruit  is  produced.     The  actual  demands  of  the 
grove  on  which  300  boxes  of  oranges  were  to  be  made,  there- 
fore, would  be  more  nearly  represented  by  combining  the 
plant  food  requirements  already  specified  for  the  growing 
tree  with  the  material  now  shown  as  necessary  for  produc- 
ing the  fruit  that  tree  is  to  bear. 


NITROGEN    FROM    THE    AIR. 


43 


Experience,  however,  has  shown  that  economical  grove 
fertilizing  necessitates  certain  modifications  of  this  the- 
oretical basis.  Less  nitrogen  and  more  phosphoric  acid 
than  indicated  by  the  mere  composition  of  the  tree  and  its 
fruit,  are  found  to  best  meet  the  continued   wellfare   of  the 


-Sosraiiiii 


RESULTS  OK  EXi'iiRl.MENT,   BY  H     E.    WINDHAM,    GOSPORT,   N.  S.    W. 


WITHOUT  FERTILIZER 
I20  CASES  PER  ACRE 


COMPLETE  FERTILIZER, 

WITH  POTASH 
570  CASES  PER  ACRE 


FERTILIZED  WITHOUT  POTASH 
220  CASES  PER  ACRE 


grove.  Nitrogen  is  partly  provided  through  the  action  of 
nitrifying  bacteria  on  the  nitrogen  of  the  air,  particularly 
when    the    intervention    of    a    leguminous    cover    crop     is 


44  PHOSPHORIC    ACID. 

secured.  Phosphoric  acid  may  profitably  be  used  in  some 
excess  of  the  actual  demands  of  the  crop,  because  it  is  to  an 
extent  subject  to  leeching,  and  moreover,  assists  in  liberating 
otherwise  unavailable  plant  food  of  the  soil.  The  applica- 
tion of  potash  in  close  conformity  to  the  demands  of  the 
crop,  as  shown  by  analysis  is  found  to  best  meet  the  re- 
quirements of  the  grove. 

A  fertilizer  which  shall  supply  loo  trees  with  72  lbs.  of 
phosphoric  acid,  40  lbs.  of  nitrogen  and  122  lbs  of  actual 
potash  will  meet  the  plant  food  requirements  of  the  average 
300  box  grove.  This,  therefore  may  advantageously  be 
adopted  as  the  basis,  or  normal  application  for  the  rational 
fertilizing  of  the  bearing  grove.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the 
relation  between  these  three  different  plant  food  consti- 
tuents in  the  normal  fertilizer  is  approximately  as  follows  : 
Nitrogen  i  ;  Phosphoric  acid  2  and  potash  3.  These  pro- 
portions should  be  approximately  preserved  in  the  compo- 
sition of  fertilizers  on  this  basis.  Taking  nitrogen,  the 
smallest  constituent  in  quantity  required,  represented  by  i, 
the  application  of  phosphoric  acid  should  be  about  2  times 
as  much  and  the  potash  about  3  times  as  much  as  the 
amount  of  nitrogen  applied.  The  percentage  composition 
of  a  mixed  fertilizer  containing  these  quantities  and  pro- 
portions should  be  about  as  follows : 

Phosphoric  Acid  (available)       7      per  cent. 

Nitrogen    ...  •     •     •       3-5  " 

Potash 12  " 


CALCULATION    OF    FORMULAE  45 

A  mixture  of  fertilizing  materials  to  give  approximately 
the  above  number  of  pounds  of  plant  food  could  be  made  of 
255  lbs.  Sulphate  of  Potash,  (48^  Potash,)  122.40  lbs. 
515  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate,  (14^  available,)       72.10  lbs. 
267  lbs  Nitrate  of  Soda.  (15^  nitrogen,)  40.05  lbs. 


1037  lbs. 

Worked  out  on  the  ton  basis  it  would  give  the  following 
formula: 

492  lbs.  Sulphate  Potash,  (48^  Potash,)       '  11.85  lbs. 
994  lbs.  Acid  Phosphate,  (14^  available,)  6.95  lbs. 

514  lbs.  Nitrate  Soda,  (15^  nitrogen,)  3.86  lbs. 


2000  lbs. 

In  calculating  the  above,  the  minimum  analysis  of  the 
material  used  is  taken,  to  be  sure  that  the  analysis  does  not 
under-run.  Nearly  all  materials  over-run  sufficiently,  how- 
ever so  that  a  fertilizer  made  on  above  formula  would  be 
sure  to  analyze 

12.00^  Potash. 

7.00^  available  Phosphoric  Acid, 

3.90^  Nitrogen, 

The  same  plant  food  essentials  may  be  supplied 
in  different  forms,  the  use  of  which  must  depend  on  con- 
venience, economy  and  their  adaptability  to  the  crop  to  be 
grown.  The  following  materials  will  give  a  variety  from 
which  to  select : 


46  CALCULATION    OF    FORMULAE. 

Potash,     122  lbs.  Actual  Potash  Require 

Sulphate  Potash,  48^ 255  lbs. 

Double  Manure  Salt,   26^     .     .     .  470    " 

Available  Phosphoric  Acid  72  lbs.  require 

Acid  Phosphate  14^ 515  lbs. 

Acid  Phosphate  16^ 450    *' 

Dissolved  Bone  Black  18^    .     .     .  400     " 
Acid  Phosphate  Sfo 900    " 

Nitrogen,     40  lbs.  require. 

Nitrate  of  Soda,  15^  Nit.      .     .     .  267  lbs. 

Sulphate  of  Ammonia,  20^  Nit.     .  200     " 

Dried  Blood,  16^  Nit 250     " 

These  materials  may  be  applied  singly  or  mixed  as 
complete  fertilizers,  the  different  ingredients  to  be  varied 
according  to  the  conditions  of  the  market  and  convenience 
of  the  grower.  Since  only  mineral  materials  more  or  less 
absorbent  of  moisture,  are  included,  they  should  not  be 
mixed  except  for  use  in  the  near  future.  They  will  cake 
and  become  hard  or  nubby,  if  allowed  to  remain  several 
months  before  use. 

The  proportions  mentioned  are  intended  to  remain 
fixed.  The  total  quantities  to  be  applied,  however,  must 
vary  with  the  age  requirements  of  the  trees  and  condition 
of  the  grove  as  well  as  general  fertility  of  the  soil.  These 
quantities  are  suggested  as  a  basis,  and  may  be  accepted  as 
meeting  the  average   requirements    of  the  300   box  grove. 


THE    DEMANDS    OF    THE    TREE.  47 

A  grove,  producing  300  boxes  is,  however,  only  at  the  begin- 
ning of  its  period  of  bearing.  The  quantity  of  fertilizer  to 
be  applied  must  be  increased  with  the  increasing  growth 
and  increased  demands  of  the  tree.  The  total  application 
recommended  for  100  trees  and  300  boxes  of  fruit,  was  1037 
lbs.  of  the  above  mentioned  mixture.  This  rate  of  10.37  lbs. 
per  tree  should  be  increased  in  proportion  to  the  increased 
yield  of  fruit.  Trees  yielding  10  boxes  each  should  receive 
this  fertilizer  at  the  rate  of  35  to  45  lbs.  per  tree.  After 
the  ten  box  stage  is  reached,  the  proportional  increase  in 
the  fertilizer  may  be  somewhat  diminished,  because  at  this 
stage  of  production  the  growth  of  the  tree  itself  does  not 
increase  in  proportion  to  the  increase  of  fruit,  and  there- 
after makes  less  demand  on  the  fertilizer. 

In  mixing  or  using  of  the  different  materials  recommen- 
ded, the  actual  percentage  of  the  different  essentials, 
potash,  phosphoric  acid  and  nitrogen  in  the  mixture  must 
necessarily  vary,  though  the  actual  amount  of  each  of 
them  may  remain  the  same.  This  matter  is  often  the 
source  of  misunderstanding.  It  therefore  deserves  special 
consideration. 

The  percentage  composition  of  any  fertilizer  must 
necessarily  vary  with  the  raw  materials  composing  same, 
since  the  percent  does  not  refer  to  the  actual  quantity  of 
plant  food  present,  but  is  simply  an  expression  of  the  fact 
that  the  amount  of  the  specified  article  of  the  combination 
is  so  many  per  cents  or  hundredths  of  the  whole  mixture. 

By  a  comparison   of  the  two    different  fertilizers  con- 


48  PERCENTAGE    AND    COMPOSITION. 

taining  the  same  quantities  of  each  of  the  three  essentials, 
but  made  up  of  different  raw  materials,  giving  different 
percentages,  this  fact  becomes  clear. 

The  percent  must  depend  on  the  total  quantity  of  which 
it  is  a  part.  A  half  or  tenth  or  hundredth,  of  per  cent,  of 
1000  lbs.  is  quite  different  from  the  same  proportion  of  1500 
lbs.  Ten  per  cent  of  a  fertilizer  mixture  consisting  of  a 
total  of  1000  lbs.  must  be  quite  different  from  ten  per  cent 
of  a  different  mixture  amounting  to  1500  lbs.  though  each 
may  contain  the  same  total  amount  of  each  kind  of  plant 
food  present. 

COMPARISON  OF  PERCENTAGE  AND  COMPOSITION 


Pounds  of 

Amount  of 

Per  cent  of 

Material 

Plant  Food. 

Plant  Food. 

Sulphate  Potash,  48^             255 

122.40 

11.85 

Acid  Phosphate,  14^              515 

72.16 

6-95 

Nitrate  Soda,   15^                   267 

40.05 

3.86 

Total,        1037. 

Sulphate  Ammonia,                200 

40.00 

2-55 

Acid  Phosphate,  8^                 900 

72.00 

4.58 

Double  Manure  Salt,   26^      470 

122.22 

7-77 

Total,        1570. 

This    comparison    makes   very    evident    the  mistake  of 
estimating  the  plant  food  content  of  mixed  fertilizers  by 


*'make  weights.  49 

their  percentage  composition.  Instead  of  stipulating  the 
percent  of  each  essential  required  in  a  mixture,  the  actual 
amount  of  each  of  the  three  plant  foods  desired  should  be 
specified. 

Another  erroneous  supposition  of  many  users  of  fer- 
tilizers should  be  mentioned  in  this  connection.  Many  well 
meaning  advisers  of  growers,  ignorant  of  all  details  of  the 
actual  business  of  making  and  selling  fertilizers,  constantly 
speak  of  "make  weights"  and  "fillers"  in  connection  with 
commercial  fertilizers.  These  allusions  have  led  to  the 
common  belief  among  uninformed  persons,  that  mixed  fer- 
tilizers often  contain  materials  put  in  for  the  sole  purpose 
of  bringing  the  total  quantity  of  material  in  mixture  up  to 
2000  lbs.  as  the  ton  is  the  unit  of  commercial  transactions, 
and  that  in  order  to  buy  a  small  amount  of  plant  food, 
they  are  obliged  to  pay  not  only  for  the  so  called  filler,  but 
high  freight  rates  on  a  material  which  is  useless.  As  a 
matter  of  fact  there  is  little  actual  filler  in  fertilizers,  (es- 
pecially those  of  high  grade)  as  the  reputable  manufacturer 
prefers  to  have  an  overrun  rather  than  resort  to  the  use  of 
"make  weights."  However  when  a  specified  percentage  is 
insisted  on  (and  at  same  time,  the  kind  or  source  of  the 
materials  to  be  used  is  specified)  it  would  be  necessary  for 
the  manufacturer  to  use  filler,  providing  the  original 
material  is  concentrated  and,  the  consumer  insists 
on  buying  the  goods  by  the  ton. 

As  a  rule  however,  since  the  manufacturer  decides  on 
the  percentage  composition  of  the  fertilizer  and  has  at  his 


50  FILLER NOT    A    PLANT    FOOD. 

disposal  for  compounding'  the  same,  desirable  raw  material 
varying  greatly  in  strength  or  concentration  and  can 
combine  them  to  secure  the  desired  percentage  of  each 
essential  in  each  ton  of  mixture,  he  is  able  to  make  most 
any  desired  mixture  without  ihe  use  of  "filler." 

All  fertilizers  contain  actual  plant  food  having  a  definite 
commercial  value,  combined  chemically  with  material  which 
has  little  or  no  commercial  value  as  plant  food.  This  latter 
material  is  in  no  sense  "filler"  but  is  just  as  necessary  as  the 
plant  food  itself,  being  in  most  cases  essential  in  conserving 
the  actual  plant  food  until  the  plant  or  fruit  can  make  use 
of  it.     Filler  or  "make  weights"  contain  no  plant  food. 

With  these  facts  before  him  the  orange  grower  is  in 
possession  of  the  information  which  should  enable  him  to 
economically  supply  his  grove  with  the  materials  essential 
to  its  continued  productiveness. 

It  must  not  be  inferred  that  these  fertilizer  suggestions 
meet  every  case  and  condition.  They  are  simply  the  basis 
for  intelligent  action.  The  formulas  given  will  maintain 
the  productiveness  of  the  average  grove  under  normal  con- 
ditions. It  does  not  follow,  however,  that  the  same  end  may 
not  occasionally  be  advantageously  attained  by  other  means. 
When  the  grower  is  so  skilled  as  to  unerringly  diagnose  the 
indications  of  his  grove,  and  thereby  interpret  its  food  re- 
quirements, he  may  vary,  or  even  omit,  one  of  the  ingre- 
dients mentioned,  or  obtain  the  same  by  other  means.  Until 
he  is  thus  skilled,  however,  he  will  usually  do  well  to  follow 
the  route  marked  out  by  successful  predecessors. 


SINGLE    BRANCH    OF    GRAPE    FRUIT. 
FROM  TREE  FERTILIZED  WITH  COMPLETE  FERTILIZER, 


IRRIGATION, 

The  necessity,  or  desirability,  for  artificial  water  supply 
for  the  grove,  must  depend  entirely  on  locality.  In  Cali- 
fornia it  is  absolutely  indispensable,  wherever  orange  grow- 
ing is  a  commercial  industry.  In  Florida  it  is  frequently 
provided  as  protection  against  damage  from  drought,  which 
often  occurs  soon  after  the  young  fruit  has  set,  and  oc- 
casionally results  in  serious  dropping. 

Methods  in  the  two  states  are  wholly  unlike,  as  conditions 
are  unlike  and  direct  objects  are  different.  In  California 
ditch  irrigation  is  the  sole  form  practiced.  In  Florida  the 
general  level  of  the  country,  and  very  porous  nature  of  the 
soil,  render  ditches  useless.  Piping  the  groves  and  the  over- 
head spraying  of  the  trees,  in  the  guise  of  artificial  rain  is, 
usually  resorted  to  where  the  natural  supply  of  water  is 
augmented.  Artesian  and  pumped  surface  water  are  both 
utilized.  The  month  of  May  is  about  the  only  time  when 
an  artificial  water  supply  is  ever  found  desirable.  Only  a 
very  small  proportion  of  the  groves  are  provided  with 
facilities  for  irrigation. 

California  has  generally  adopted  the  furrow  system. 
About  four  furrows  are  run  between  the  rows  of  trees;  down 
these  the  water  is  allowed  to  flow  slowly.  Care  is  exercised 
that  the  water  does  not  come  in  direct  contact  with  the 
trunks  of  the  trees .  Scalding  and  "  foot  rot  "  would  be  apt 
to  follow.  Cultivation  must  be  thorough  and  follow  the 
water  as  soon  as  the  surface  is  dry  enough  to  work. 


IRRIGATION    HARD-PAN.  53 

The  so-called  "irrigation  hard-pan  "  formerly  so  serious 
a  detriment  to  California  groves,  and  for  which  sub-soiling 
was  believed  to  be  the  only  remedy,  is  now  effectively 
overcome  or  prevented.  The  immediate  result  of  sub- 
soiling,  was  serious  damage  from  the  destruction  of  feeder 
roots.  The  present  practice  is  to  run  three  furrows  a  foot 
deep  between  the  rows.  Water  is  allowed  to  run  slowly 
through  these  for  several  days,  till  the  sub-soil  is  wet  and 
softened.  The  surface  still  remains  so  dry  that  it  may  be 
worked.  The  furrows  are  cultivated  full  of  dry  soil. 
Evaporation  is  prevented  and  water  conserved.  The  deep 
irrigation  over-comes  the  hard-pan,  which  results  from 
frequent  and  constant  shallow  watering  and  cultivation  to 
a  single  depth. 


WIND  PROTECTION. 

Orange  trees  exposed  to  continuous  high  winds,  es- 
pecially sea  breezes,  as  is  the  case  in  southern  California 
and  on  the  east  coast  of  Florida,  are  greatly  benefited  by 
intervening  wind-breaks.  These  are  best  provided  by 
plantations  of  rapid  growing  heavy  foliaged  trees.  In 
California  the  eucalyptus  and  cypress  are  most  satisfactory. 
In  Florida  the  camphor  and  bamboo  are  successfully  used 
for  the  same  purpose.  Since  most  Florida  groves  are  set 
out  on  timbered  lands,  a  belt  of  natural  timber,  about  fifty 
feet  wide,  is  the  more  common  wind-break. 


FROST    PROTECTION. 

It  must  be  remembered  that  the  orange  is  distinctly  sub- 
tropical in  nature.  Though  it  possesses  considerable  forced 
hardiness  against  cold,  frost  is  entirely  foreign  to  its  nature 
and  its  culture  in  both  California  and  Florida  has  become 
extended  far  toward  the  line  of  serious  menace.  In  both 
states  protection  against  occasional  disastrous  cold,  has  be- 
come a  regular  practice  with  prudent  growers. 

Conditions  in  the  two  sections  do  not  differ  materially 
in  the  amount  or  frequency  of  the  protection  needed.  Both 
possess  large  areas  where  damaging  cold  is  entirely  un- 
known. Each  has  many  orange  groves  in  sections  where 
preparation  for  protection  is  regarded  as  an  advisable  form 


FREEZE    OF    1895. 


55 


of  grove  insurance.  In  both  cases  protection  of  early 
bloom,  against  the  possibility  of  damage  from  late  frosts  is 
the  most  common  expedient. 

The  whole  world  is  aware  of  the  great  devastation 
wrought  in  Florida  by  the  freeze  of  February  1895  whereby 
property  of  the  value  of  $27,000,000  disappeared  in  a  single 
night.    So  many  people  are  ignorant  of  the  real  conditions, 


VIEWING    THE    DEVASTATION    OF   THE    FREEZE   OF    1S95. 

and  consequently   misinterpret   results,  that    a    brief    pre- 
sentation of  the  actual  facts  is  deemed  advisable. 

The  freeze  which  destroyed  so  large  a  part  of  the  groves 
of  Florida  was  without  precedent.  It  was  as  much  out  of 
the  range  of  human  expectation,  as  was  the  destruction  of 
Martinique  by  the  eruption  of  Mt.  Pelee.  The  climate 
of  Florida  has  not  changed.     The  lowest  temperature  ever 


56 


FREEZE    OF    1895. 


recorded  in  the  State,  was  as  long  ago  as  1835.  The  temp- 
erature was  within  one  degree  of  being  as  low  in  1886  as  at 
the  time  of  the  disaster  of  1895.  Yet  the  former  resulted  in 
little  serious  damage  to  groves,  while  the  latter  annihilated 
them.  The  reason  for  the  difference  was  the  unpreceden- 
ted conjunction  of  circumstances  acting  together. 

On  December  29th,   1894,  the  thermometer  at  Jackson- 


AFTER    THE    FREEZE    OF    1 895. — TREES    TRIMMED    BACK    TO   TRUNKS. 

ville,  on  the  very  northern  edge  of  the  orange  section,  fell 
to  14  degrees,  the  lowest  point  reached  in  60  3^ears.  Trees, 
however,  escaped  serious  harm,  but  they  were  naturally 
entirely  defoliated.  The  severe  cold  was  followed  in  a  few 
days  by  three  weeks  of  continued  extremely  warm  weather. 
The  defoliated  trees  began  to  grow,  nature  rushed  to  repair 
the  damage.     By  the  end  of  the  first  week  in  February  they 


DORiMANCY.  57 

were  covered  with  tender  buds,  fresh  shoots  and  half 
formed  leaves.  Then  on  February  8th  came  another  ex- 
tremely cold  snap  ;  the  thermometer  again  dropped  to  14 
degrees,  and  the  trees,  full  of  sap,  were  killed  to  the  ground. 

It  is  easily  seen  that  it  was  not  unusual  cold,  but  phe- 
nominal  conjunction  of  circumstances,  which  brought  dis- 
aster to  Florida. 

Protection  against  cold,  naturally  assumes  two  distinct 
phases.  Namely  influencing  the  resistance  of  the  tree  itself 
and  actual  protection  against  external  conditions. 

Dormancy.  All  horticulturists  recognize  the  importance 
of  this  condition  of  the  tree,  as  bearing  on  its  susceptibility 
to  cold.  On  this  point  Dr.  H.  E.  Stockbridge,  in  perhaps 
the  most  complete  presentation  of  the  subject  published, 
says:  (*)  "The  tree  must  be  kept  as  nearly  dormant  as 
possible,  from  the  first  of  December  till  the  first  of  March. 
All  means  conducive  toward  this  end  are  positively  our  best 
and  most  effective  protection  against  the  possibilities  of 
damage  from  frost.  "  He  recommends  the  following  means 
toward  this  end  : 

1.  Omit  the  working  of  all  groves  from  September 
till  February. 

2.  Exclude  all  nitrogenous  or  ammoniated  fertilizers 
during  this  period. 

3.  Root-pruning,  carefully  practiced  around  one-quarter 
of  the  tree  is  conducive  to  dormancy. 


(*)  Report  Florida  State  Horticultural  Society  1S99. 


5©  ACTUAL    PROTECTION. 

4.  Varieties,  particularly  of  stocks,  should  be  selected 
with  special  reference  to  dormancy,  or  late  spring  starting, 
in  which  particular  they  vary  greatly.  The  hardiness  of 
varieties  is  chiefly  a  question  of  dormancy. 

Water  and  forest  protection.  Living  trees  and  large 
bodies  of  water  are  invariably  several  degrees  warmer  than 
the  surrounding  air.  They  must  therefore  exert  some 
warming  influence  on  the  atmosphere.  If  the  prevailing 
wind  is  from  the  forest  or  water,  toward  the  grove  this  effect 
may  be  sufficient  to  prevent  frost,  or  to  mitigate  damage. 
Growing  vegetation,  hedges  and  fences,  intervening  between 
the  w^ater  or  forest  and  the  grove,  interfere  with  the  free 
movement  of  the  air,  and  are  consequently  harmful.  This 
is  particularly  true  of  the  growth  often  left  bordering  bodies 
of  water,  which  prevents  the  warm  air  moving    over  them. 

Artificial  Shelter.  Very  many  forms  have  been  ex- 
tensively tried  in  both  California  and  Florida.  Tents  of 
various  designs,  with  and  without  heat,  are  now  practically 
discarded.  In  California  artificial  heat  is  now  depended 
upon  and  in  Florida  only  one  general  form  of  shelter 
remains  in  real  use.  This  is  the  slatted  shed,  built  per- 
manently over  the  grove.  It  gives  about  three  quarters 
closed  and  one  quarter  open  space.  Woven  lath  and  wire 
fencing  material  is  the  form  of  construction  used.  Wooden 
posts  and  frames,  are  strung  with  galvanized  iron  wire  for 
sustaining  the  cover.  The  posts  are  usually  left  12  to  16 
feet  out  of  the  ground.  The  cost  of  such  sheds  is  about 
I400.00  to  $500.00  per  acre.     They  are  of  course  adapted 


ARTIFICIAL    HEAT.  59 

only  to  medium  sized  trees.  They  furnish  protection  to  the 
extent  of  from  4  to  6  degrees,  when  closed  on  the  windward 
side.  They  have  some  value  in  shading  the  grove  during 
the  summer,  and  thus  preventing  loss  of  nitrogen  and 
moisture  from  the  soil.  On  the  other  hand,  they  harbor 
insects  and  other  tree  pests.  Their  general  use  is  not 
probable. 

The  Use  of  Heat.  Dry  heat  and  moist  heat  are  both 
extensively  used  both  in  California  and  in  Florida.  Each 
has  a  different  direct  object.  The  former  is  resorted  to 
for  materially  raising  the  temperature  of  the  atmosphere  in 
the  grove.  The  latter  is  simply  a  means  for  preventing  the 
loss  of  the  natural  heat  of  the  tree  and  soil,  by  evaporation. 
Its  effect  is  necessarily  comparatively  slight,  a  change  of 
from  2  to  4  degrees,  and  consequent  prevention  of  frost 
formation  only  is  expected,  and  is  readily  attained. 

Slow  fires  or  smudges,  in  California  of  wet  straw,  and 
in  Florida  of  Spanish  moss,  are  the  practical  methods  em- 
ployed. The  smoke  produced,  settles  over  the  grove,  pre- 
vents the  heat  from  radiating,  and  also  after  the  sun  rises 
protects  the  trees  from  its  heat.  This  is  a  most  important 
fact,  since  it  is  really  the  thawing,  rather  than  the  freezing, 
which  is  the  immediate  cause  of  the  damage. 

Dry  heat,  or  actual  fires  in  groves,  are  common  in  both 
California  and  Florida.  Both  use  the  coal  basket  of 
woven  wire.  Twenty  or  fifty  baskets  per  acre  afford  the 
protection  sought.  A  rise  of  three  to  five  degrees 
with  the  smaller  number  of  baskets,  when  outside  tempera- 


6o  COST    OF  "insurance". 

tare  fell  to  24  degrees  is  entirely  feasible.  (*)  These  baskets 
cost  only  about  25  cents  each,  and  only  one  quarter  to  one 
half  ton  of  soft  coal  pei  acre  per  night  is  required  for  their 
use.  Considering  the  value  of  the  property  protected,  this 
is  as  low  a  premium  for  insurance  against  damage  from  cold, 
as  is  usually  paid  for  protection  against  fire.  Two  or  three 
nights  during  a  season  will  usually  cover  the  period  of 
danger. 

In  Florida,  where  groves  are  often  situated  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  abundant  supplies  of  seasoned  pine 
wood,  open  fires  of  this  fuel  are  resorted  to  instead  of  the 
coal  basket.  The  heat  produced  is  greater,  and  the  actual 
protection  is  proportionately  increased. 


(*)  Report  Riverside  Hort.  Club,  Citrus  in  Cala.  1900  p.  155- 


EFFECTS    OF    IMPROPER    FERTILIZATION    RESULTING    IN    "DIE    BACK. 


DISEASES  AND  PESTS. 

Though  the  orange  is  subject  to  a  few  serious  pests,  the 
number  is  not  greater  than  with  other  standard  fruits. 
These  troubles  are  mostly  well  understood,  and  form  the 
subject  of  separate  specific  works,  particularly  the  Bulletins 
of  the  California  and  Florida  Experiment  Stations,  to 
which  the  grower  is  referred  for  full  discussion.  Only  a 
brief  summary  of  the  most  important  pests  can  be  pre- 
sented here. 

Die=Back.  This  is  the  dying  back  of  apparently  healthy 
twigs  and  branches,  usually  preceded  by  a  rusty  deposit 
on  the  bark,  from  which  the  name  "  red  rust "  is  often 
given  to  the  trouble.  This  is  recognized  as  a  condition 
of  the  tree,  and  not  as  a  distinct  disease.  Cause.  Error 
in  nutrition,  hard-pan,  lack  of  proper  drainage,  and 
excessive  feeding  with  manure  and  other  organic  fertilizers. 
Treatment.  Remove  the  cause.  Spraying  with  Bordeaux 
mixture  results  in  a  tonic  action  on  the  leaves,  greatly  im- 
proving the  condition. 

Foot-rot,  Gum  disease.  This  is  believed  to  be  due  to 
a  vegetable  parasite.  Its  presence  is  recognized  by  an 
exudation  of  gum  from  the  bark,  usually  near  the  ground. 
Cause.  It  is  believed  to  be  conveyed  by  spores  or  germs 
in  the  air.  Cow-penning,  lack  of  drainage,  excessive 
use  of  organic  manures,  and  accidental  injury  to  the 
bark  are  believed  to  be  the  pre-disposing  conditions. 
Treatment.     Cut  away  all  diseased  parts  down  to  healthy 


SCAB-MOLD-SCALE.  6;^ 

wood.  Paint  the  exposed  tissue  with  crude  carbolic  acid. 
Burn  all  removed  material.  All  tools  used  should  be 
disinfected  with  the  carbolic  acid  wash  before  being  used 
on  healthy  trees.  The  sour  stock  is  less  subject  to  attack 
than  is  other  citrus  wood. 

Scab.  This  consists  of  warty  cork-like  elevations  on 
twigs,  leaves  or  fruit.  Cause.  It  is  thought  to  be  the  result 
of  the  action  of  a  specific  fungus.  Treatment.  Spray  with 
Bordeaux  mixture,  or  with  ammoniacal  copper  carbonate 
solution. 

5ooty  Mold.  This  is  a  sooty  black  accumulation  on 
leaf  and  fruit.  Cause.  It  is  due  to  the  action  of  various 
insects  which  exude  "  honey  dew. "  The  white  fly  is  the 
most  serious  of  these  pests.  Treatment.  Destroy  the 
white  fly  by  fumigating  with  hydro-cyanic  acid  gas.  Spray 
with  resin  wash  or  kerosene  emulsion. 

Orange  Scale.  This  is  the  scale  insect  most  common 
to  citrus  trees.  It  may  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  as  to 
cause  the  death  of  branches,  or  even  trees,  through  the 
loss  of  sap  sucked  out  by  the  insects.  Treatment.  Spray 
with  solution  of  whale-oil  soap. 


PRUNING. 

Within  a  few  years  a  radical  change  in  the  general 
practice  of  pruning  has  taken  place.  Formerly  trees  were 
made  to  branch  high,  with  clean  tall  trunks.  The  heads 
were  thinned  out  to  admit  access  of  sunlight.  Now  low 
dense  heads  are  the  decided  preference. 

Advantage  of  Low  Heads.  The  shading  of  the  ground 
around  the  tree,  thus  preventing  the  soil  moisture  from 
evaporating  ;  prevention  of  sun  baking  of  thesoil  ;  ability 
to  support  heavier  crops  without  propping  ;  and  greater 
accessibility  of  fruit,  resulting  in  easier  picking,  are  the 
chief  gains  from  low-headed  trees.  Protection  of  the  trunk 
from  damage  from  sun-scald,  is  also  secured.  Thinning 
out  of  what  was  formerly  considered  as  superfluous  growth 
is  now  practically  abandoned  for  the  same  reason.  Pro- 
tection of  young  fruit  from  hot  winds  is  a  further  gain. 

Branches  and  sprouts  which  seriously  mar  the  symmetry 
of  the  tree,  may  be  removed,  but  the  pruning  knife  is  be- 
coming less  and  less  in  evidence  in  the  best  managed 
groves.  All  necessary  pruning  should  of  course  be  done 
while  the  trees  are  dormant  Wounds  should  be  painted  or 
otherwise  protected  from  the  air. 


HARVESTING  AND  PACKING* 

However  successful  the  grower  may  be  in  producing 
fruit,  the  real  success  of  his  business  will  finally  depend  on 
the  skill  used  in  harvesting  and  marketing  his  crop.  A  few 
of  the  salient  points  influencing  results  will  be  presented. 

Picking.  Clip,  never  pull  the  fruit  The  stem  should 
be  cut  close  up  to  the  orange  that  danger  of  puncturing 
neighboring  oranges  may  be  avoided.  Pick  into  hand  or 
shoulder  baskets  and  at  every  stage  handle  each  orange 
with  care.  Only  fully  ripe  fruit  should  be  picked.  Unlike 
many  other  fruits  the  ripening  of  oranges  never  continues 
after  they  are  removed  from  the  tree. 

Grading.  Two  distinct  classes  are  recognized,  and 
should  be  strictly  adhered  to,  namely,  "  Brights "  and 
"  Russets.  "  The  latter  is  a  distinctly  Florida  product.  At 
least  two  grades  of  each  class  should  be  made.  The  standard 
grades  of  California  are  :  Fancy,  Choice  and  Standard. 
Oranges  should  cure  in  the  packing  house  from  two  to 
seven  days  before  being  packed,  to  allow  toughening  of  the 
skin.  Wrap  in  a  good  quality  of  tissue  paper,  preferably 
with  design  or  trade-mark  stamped  thereon. 

Only  oranges  of  a  single  size  may  be  packed  in  a  box 
together.  They  should  be  accurately  sized  by  machine. 
The  standard  sizes,  which  refer  to  the  number  which  a  box 
will  contain,  are  as  follows  :  96  -  112  -  126  -  150  -  176  -  200- 
216  -  250  -  300.     The   standard   box   only   should   be    used. 


SIZE    OF    BOX. 

Its  dimensions  are:  ii3^  x  ii/4  x  26  inches,  inside  measure. 
Boxes  should  be  filled  solid  with  fruit  in  rows  with  broken 
spaces,  and  project  from  %  to  %  oi  an  inch  above  the 
edges,  so  that  the  top  may  exert  pressure  and  keep  the 
fruit  in  place. 

The  outside  of  the  box  should  always  be  correctly  sten- 
cilled with  grade,  size,  variety  and  address  of  grower.  In 
this  way  it  is  possible  to  establish  a  reputation  and  demand 
which  will  have  a  distinct  money  value  to  the  producer  of 
good  fruit. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Introduction 3 

Adaptations 5 

Climate 5 

Soil 6 

Propagation 7 

Seedlings 7 

Stocks 8 

Budding 9 

Hybridizing   9 

Varieties I2 

Types 12 

Preparation  for  Planting i4 

Localities 14 

Transplanting 16 

Time 16 

Age 16 

Methods 16 

Laying  out 17 

Cultivation i9 

Time 19 

Clean  Culture  vs.  Cover  Crops 20 

Methods 21 

Fertilizing 22 

Basis  of  Practice 25 

Composition  of  Oranges 25 

Composition  of  Soils 26 

Food  Requirements 27 

Phosphoric  Acid 28 

Nitrogen ,,,,.., ,,,,,.  28 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS— Continued. 

PAGE 

Potash 29 

Habits  of  Growth 31 

Forms  to  Apply ;^;^ 

Secondary  Effects    35 

Relations  to  Quality ;^6 

Time  and  Method  of  Application 37 

Quality  and  Proportions 38 

Growing-Tree  Fertilizers 39 

Bearing=Tree  Fertilizers 42 

Percentage  and  Composition 48 

Irrigation 52 

Methods 52 

Wind  Protection 54 

Frost  Protection 54 

Dormancy 57 

Water  and  Forest  Protection 58 

Artificial  Shelter 58 

Use  of  Heat » 59 

Diseases  and  Pests 62 

Die-Back 62 

Foot-Rot-Gum  Disease 62 

Scab 63 

Sooty  Mold 67, 

Scale 6^ 

Pruning 64 

Low  Heads 64 

Harvesting  and  Packing 65 

Picking 65 

Grading 65 


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